US: Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging Activities

Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging Activities

1. Explain the objective of hedge accounting and how this objective should improve the transparency of financial statements.

Hedge accounting refers to accounting designed to record changes in the value of the hedged item and the hedging instrument in the same accounting period. This enhances transparency because the hedged item and hedging instrument accounting are linked. Prior to hedge accounting, the financial statement effect of the hedged item and hedging instrument were not linked. Since companies enter into hedges to mitigate risks, the accounting should reflect the effect of this strategy and should clearly communicate the strategy. The accounting and footnote disclosures required for derivatives attempt to do this.

2. Explain the differences between options, forward contracts, and futures contracts and the potential benefits and potential costs of each type of contract.

An option is a contract that allows the holder to buy or sell a security at a particular date. The holder is not obligated to buy or sell the security. They may allow the contract to expire. Typically, the holder must pay an upfront fee to the writer of the option. The writer of the option collects a fee, or premium for the option, and in exchange they are obligated to perform under the option contract.
A forward contract or a futures contract is similar because both sides of the contract are obligated to perform. A forward contract is negotiated between two parties, they agree upon delivering a certain quantity of goods or currency at a specific date in the future. Many allow net settlement which means the “winner” of the contract receives cash consideration for the difference between the market price of the commodity and the contracted amount on the date the contract expires. The initial amount exchanged at the date the contract is entered into is negligible; however, as noted in Chapter 12, forward contracts hold the risk that the opposing party will not be able to perform.
A futures contract is traded on a market. The amount of commodity to be exchanged and the date of delivery are standardized. The futures rate is determined by the market at the date the contract is entered into. These contracts are settled daily. As noted in Chapter 12, a potential cost of this type of contract is that the contract is defined by the market, so it cannot be tailored to hedge a specific risk.


3. Hedge effectiveness must be documented before a particular hedge qualifies for hedge accounting. Describe the most common approaches used to determine hedge effectiveness and when they are appropriate. In each of the approaches, when would a particular hedge not be considered effective?

Hedge effectiveness involves assessing how well the hedge mitigates the gains or losses of the asset, liability and/or anticipated transaction that it is entered into to mitigate.
The most common approaches to determining hedge effectiveness are critical term analysis and statistical analysis.
Under critical term analysis, the nature of the underlying variable, the notional amount of the derivative and the item being hedged, the delivery date of the derivative and the settlement date for the item being hedged are examined. If the critical terms of the derivative and the hedged item are identical, then an effective hedge is assumed.
A statistical approach is used if critical terms don’t match. One such approach involves comparing the correlation between changes in the price of the item being hedged and the derivative. While the FASB does not specify a specific benchmark correlation coefficient, cash flow offsets of between 80% and 125% are considered to be highly effective. Outside of these ranges, the hedge would not be considered highly effective.


4. A hedged firm purchase or sale commitment typically qualifies for fair-value hedge accounting if the hedge is documented to be effective. Compare the accounting for both the derivative and the firm purchase or sale commitment under each of these circumstances: (a) the hedge relationship is deemed to be effective and (b) the hedge relationship is not deemed to be effective.

Under a firm purchase or sales commitment, if the hedge is considered to be effective, then it would qualify as a fair value hedge. The item being hedged (regardless of whether it is an asset or liability position) and the offsetting derivative are both marked to fair value at the financial statement date. If the hedge relationship is not considered to be effective, then the derivative is marked to market at the balance sheet date, regardless of when the gain or loss on the item that is being hedged is recognized. No offsetting changes in the fair value of the item being hedged are recorded until they are realized.


5. Interest rate swaps were used in the chapter to highlight the differences between fair-value and cash-flow hedge accounting. Explain what type of risk is being hedged when a pay-fixed, receive-variable swap is used to hedge an existing variable-rate loan.

A company that has an existing loan that involves a variable or floating interest rate enters into a pay-fixed, receive variable swap. The company is swapping its variable interest rate payments for fixed ones. These contracts are typically settled net. For example, if the fixed rate agreed upon is 10% for the term of the swap agreement and in one year the variable rate is 9%, then the company with the variable rate loan must pay the difference in rates multiplied by the notional amount of the loan to the other party. If the variable rate is 12%, then the company will receive the difference in rates multiplied by the notional amount of the loan. Regardless of the movement in interest rates over the term of the swap, the company will pay the fixed rate, net. This type of swap is aimed at reducing the variability in cash flows related to the debt; therefore it is designated as a cash flow hedge.


6. Interest rate swaps were used in the chapter to highlight the differences between fair-value and cash-flow hedge accounting. Explain what type of risk is being hedged when a receive-fixed, pay-variable swap is used to hedge an existing fixed-rate loan.

A receive fixed, pay variable swap is entered into if a company has an existing loan that involves a fixed interest rate and desires to swap those fixed payments for variable payments. For example, a company has a loan with an 8% fixed rate and enters into a swap arrangement so that it will pay LIBOR + 1%. If the variable rate for a year is 9%, then the company will pay 1% multiplied by the notional amount as well as the 8% for the loan. Thus, the company has paid 9%, the floating rate.
If the variable rate is 6% (5% LIBOR + 1%), then the company will pay 8% on the loan, but will receive 2% related to the swap. Thus, the company will pay 6%, the floating rate.
This type of swap is aimed at reducing the variability in the fair value of the underlying loan therefore it is designated as a fair value hedge.


7. Explain the circumstances under which fair-value hedge accounting should be used and when cash-flow hedge accounting should be used.

Fair value hedge accounting is used when the company is attempting to reduce the price risk of an existing asset/liability or firm purchase/sale commitment. Cash flow hedge accounting is appropriate when the company is attempting to reduce the variability in cash flows thus it is appropriate when hedging anticipated purchases and sales.
Under certain circumstances, hedges of existing foreign currency denominated receivables and payables are accounted for as cash flow hedges instead of fair value hedges. See question 8’s solution for these cases.


8. Statement No. 138 allows companies to account for certain hedges of existing foreign currency–denominated receivables and payables as cash-flow hedges. Under Statement No. 133, hedges of existing assets and liabilities must be accounted for as fair-value hedges. Explain the circumstances that must be present for a hedge of an existing foreign currency–denominated receivable or payable to be accounted for as a cash-flow hedge and how the accounting differs from cash-flow hedge accounting in more-general situations.

Cash flow hedge accounting can be used when hedging recognized foreign-currency denominated assets and liabilities if the variability of cash flows is completely eliminated by the hedge. This criterion is generally met if all of the critical terms of the hedged item and the hedge match such as the settlement date, currency type and currency amounts. If these don’t match, then it must be accounted for as a fair value hedge.
The key difference between this situation and the more general cash flow hedge case is that an existing asset or liability is being accounted for here. Under the more general case, the recognition of gains and losses is deferred because an anticipated transaction is being hedged. The foreign currency asset or liability is marked to fair value at year-end and the resulting gain or loss account is recognized, however, the gain or loss is offset by reclassifying an equal amount from other comprehensive income. Thus, the asset and liability are marked to fair value, but no gain or loss related to that adjustment is included in current period income.
The premium or discount related to the hedge contract is amortized to income over the length of the contract using the effective interest method. For example, if a 100,000 euro foreign currency receivable due in 60 days is recorded at the spot rate of $1.20/euro or $120,000 and at the same date, a forward contract is entered into to deliver 100,000 euros in 60 days at a forward rate of $1.18, the company knows that it will lose $2,000. This $2,000 must be amortized to income over the 60 day period.


9. Briefly describe how derivatives are accounted for according to the International Accounting Standards Board. Is the accounting similar to U.S. GAAP? How is it different?

International Accounting Standards No. 32 and 39 prescribe the accounting for derivatives. Their requirements are similar to SFAS No. 133 and 138 in terms of determining when hedge accounting can be used. The requirements for determining hedge effectiveness are very similar. Both fair value and cash flow hedge definitions and general requirements are similar. However, under IAS 39, firm sale or purchase commitments can be accounted for as either fair value or cash flow hedges which differs from the FASB requirement that they must be accounted for as fair value hedges.


10. Describe how to account for a forward contract that is intended as a hedge of an identifiable foreign currency commitment.

A forward contract of an anticipated foreign currency transaction is accounted for as a cash flow hedge. The contract is marked to fair value at each financial date and the corresponding gain or loss is included in other comprehensive income. Any premium or discount must be amortized to income over the contract term using an effective interest rate method. The gain (loss) credit (debit) is offset by a debit (credit) from other comprehensive income.
When the anticipated transaction occurs and the forward contract is settled, the resulting other comprehensive income balance is amortized to income in the same period as the underlying transaction is recognized in income.